Evidence Base
Research on police intervention options — tactics, technology, and the evidence behind each.
Less-Lethal Force
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Conducted Energy Weapon
A conducted energy weapon is an electrical less-lethal weapon designed to temporarily incapacitate or gain compliance by delivering electrical energy through propelled probes or direct contact.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
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Extended-Range Chemical Weapon
An extended-range chemical weapon is a launcher-based less-lethal system that delivers a chemical irritant at distance through a projectile designed to strike, rupture, disperse, or otherwise release an irritant payload at or near a targeted person or localized area.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
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Extended-Range Impact Weapon
An extended-range impact weapon is a dedicated launcher system used to fire kinetic projectiles intended to produce pain, temporary incapacitation, or behavioural compliance through blunt-force impact while reducing the probability of death or serious injury relative to conventional firearm ammunition.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
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Handheld Chemical Spray
A handheld chemical spray is a personally carried aerosol or pressurized chemical-irritant device directed at an individual or small number of people at close range to cause temporary ocular, respiratory, and sensory impairment and facilitate control.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
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Handheld Impact Weapon
A handheld impact weapon is a rigid, expandable, or side-handled instrument used by a police officer to strike, block, manipulate, or otherwise physically control a person through direct mechanical force.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
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Less-Lethal Shotgun
A less-lethal shotgun is a dedicated or modified 12-gauge shotgun used to fire kinetic impact munitions intended to produce pain, temporary incapacitation, or behavioural compliance while reducing the probability of penetrating or fatal injury compared with conventional firearm ammunition.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
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Other / Improvised Less-Lethal Force
A residual category for non-standard or improvised objects and tactics used as less-lethal force to contain, deter, displace, or strike a subject when conventional police intervention options are unavailable, impractical, or judged insufficient.
Current Version 1.0 October 8, 2026
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Police Service Dog
A police service dog is a trained law-enforcement dog intentionally released, directed, or permitted to physically locate, engage, bite, hold, or apprehend a person as a use-of-force intervention.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
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Remote Restraint
A remote restraint device is a projectile-launched mechanical system intended to entangle, wrap, tether, or otherwise restrict a person's movement from a distance without relying primarily on pain, chemical irritation, electrical incapacitation, or blunt-force trauma.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
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Tear Gas
Tear gas is an area-dispersal chemical irritant deployed through canisters, grenades, launched munitions, or similar systems to affect an environment or group rather than a single targeted person.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
Lethal Force
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Lethal Force
Lethal force is the intentional use of a conventional firearm against a person when officers reasonably perceive a threat of death or serious bodily injury and use penetrating projectile force to stop that threat.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
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Pistol
A pistol is the officer's routinely carried handgun and is therefore the lethal firearm platform most immediately available during spontaneous and rapidly evolving encounters.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
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Rifle
A police rifle is a shoulder-fired lethal firearm platform used either as a patrol-accessible carbine during evolving threats or as a specialist precision rifle after containment and deliberate deployment.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
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Shotgun
A lethal police shotgun is a shoulder-fired smoothbore firearm whose deployment characteristics depend heavily on ammunition, particularly whether it fires buckshot or a single slug.
Current Version 1.0 October 6, 2026
Specialist Resources
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Armored Response Vehicles
Police armored vehicles are ballistic-protected rescue and tactical vehicles used to provide mobile cover, protected transport, rescue capability, observation, and a safer operating position during high-risk incidents.
Current Version 1.0 October 8, 2026
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Ballistic, Riot, and Capture Shields
Ballistic, riot, and capture shields are hand-held protective barriers used to create physical separation, support protected approach or capture, and reduce officer exposure. In edged-weapon encounters, shield geometry, weight, retention, and team training may matter as much as ballistic protection.
Current Version 1.0 October 8, 2026
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Crisis Intervention Teams and Mental Health Co-Responders
Crisis intervention teams and mental health co-responder models are specialized police–mental health responses intended to improve recognition, communication, de-escalation, clinical assessment, diversion, and linkage to care during encounters involving people experiencing mental health or behavioural crises.
Current Version 1.0 October 8, 2026
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Crisis or Hostage Negotiators
Trained crisis or hostage negotiators are specialist police personnel who use structured communication, active listening, rapport, behavioural influence, intelligence gathering, and team-based decision support to resolve high-risk incidents through dialogue where time and containment permit.
Current Version 1.0 October 8, 2026
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Police Drones / Unmanned Aircraft Systems
An evidence explainer on police unmanned aircraft systems, including tactical reconnaissance, Drone as First Responder programs, search and rescue, containment, surveillance, privacy, public acceptance, aviation regulation, and relevance to edged-weapon incidents.
Current Version 1.0 October 8, 2026
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Police Robots / Unmanned Ground Systems
An evidence explainer on police ground robots and unmanned ground systems used for reconnaissance, EOD, communication, tactical support, containment, and--rarely--force delivery.
Current Version 1.0 October 8, 2026
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Tactical Teams
A tactical team is a specialized, top-tier police containment and intervention unit activated for incidents involving risk beyond ordinary patrol capability, with dedicated training, command structures, heavy protective equipment, specialized weapons, and coordinated containment or intervention tactics.
Current Version 1.0 October 8, 2026